Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore (1985) Confucian Ethics: Textbook secondary three, Confucian Ethics: Textbook secondary four.  Singapore, Educational Publications Bureau Pte Ltd. 

 

 

 

Confucianism as moral philosophy.

Confucianism is concerned with the person in society.   It is a system to be practised, rather than a purely descriptive philosophy.

 

The aim

Moral perfection of the individual for the perfection of society.  The Individual should strive to become a “gentleman”  or even a sage.  The “gentleman” has all the virtues and expresses them according to the principles.  The sage does the right thing automatically.

 

Virtues.

The moral development of the individual requires the acquisition and practice (these are mutually reinforcing) of the virtues which constitutes good character.  The major virtues are

• Humanity
• Rightness
• Wisdom 
• Courage
• Trust
• Filiality

 

Principles

The exercise of good character accords with these major principles.

• Propriety
• Reciprocity/compassion
• Loyalty 
• The mean - active pursuit of the right based on a balanced viewpoint.
• “Rectification of names”

 

Relationships

The virtues are all social virtues to be developed in human relationships.  There are five paradigm relationships.

•  Parent - Child
• Sibling - sibling
• Marriage
• Friendship
• People - nation/rulers

 

The first three of these are family relationships.  It is a recognition that most people develop within a family, and the family will be the primary moral influence upon them.

 

(The list seems incomplete.  One would think that the relationships “stranger to stranger” and “enemy to enemy” are as a morally fundamental as those given.)

 

 

Self cultivation.

Self cultivation is the continuous process of improving oneself morally and intellectually (the two are linked) to become a “gentleman” or even a sage.  It is a continuous process.

 

?  Leads to proper conduct

?  Develops the basic moral attitude of “loyal and compassionate”.

?  Self cultivation affects oneself and society.  (By direct conduct and by example.)

 

Self cultivation includes learning and rectifying the mind.

 

Learning.

1.      Gaining knowledge requires and develops honesty, fairness, and perseverance.  A concern for accurate language is important.

2.      Cooperation of others

3.      Understanding and skills are needed to live a (moral) life.

 

Thus, learning develops both knowledge and character.

 

Rectifying the mind by making the will sincere.

?  Avoid self-deception.  Be honest about motives and feelings.

?  Be true to moral inclinations

?  Recognize the limits of one’s own knowledge

 

The mind becomes steady and balanced.

 

 

 

The Virtues.

The virtues are all social virtues to be developed in human relationships. 

 

Humanity (Human-heartedness, benevolence)

 

The supreme virtue, and the source of the other virtues.  From human heartedness comes wisdom, courage, rightness, propriety, and trust.

 

This virtue begins in compassion and flows out of sympathy for our fellow humans. 

It leads us to seek the welfare of others as if it were our own welfare. 

Involves both self and others.

Affection, sympathy, respect to relations, friends, and fellow humans.

 

Developing it requires a ceaseless effort at self mastery according to propriety, and an effort to put oneself in a situation of others, to act according to the principle of reciprocity.

 

Human heartedness becomes meaningful when we interact with others, starting with family  - parents, siblings, spouse, and going on to friends, community, and all humans.

 

 

Rightness.

Rightness is acting in the way most fitting to a particular situation.

Not intimidated by threats or power.

Chosen even when faced with death, poverty, etc.

 

(Nothing wrong with wealth and honour when they are gained rightfully.)

 

Cultivated by keeping moral rules and concern for others in mind at all times.  We are not ashamed of the right action, so consciousness of shame tells us when we are wrong.

 

 

 

Wisdom.

Wisdom includes knowledge of people and of self.   General, professional, moral knowledge, and skills acquired through learning.

Knowing and understanding people enables us to know ourselves and develop the principle of humanity.

Requires intelligence and insight.

Knowledge of oneself includes understanding own strengths and weaknesses and undertaking self-improvement.

Judgement -  the ability to distinguish right from wrong.

             (Meet kindness with kindness, injury with justice - otherwise no difference between kindness and injury.)

 

Four kinds of knowledge:

broad (to help understanding)

specialised (to earn a living)

moral

practical (to conduct daily life)

 

 

Courage.

Lack of fear in doing what is right.

Physical courage is a virtue only if it has a moral basis.  (Otherwise just force, pride, egotism, aggressiveness)

Moral courage  - the will to overcome own shortcomings, persevere in worthy cause, uphold truth, triumph over evil - even at cost of fame, fortune, life.

 

Inspired by humanity, guided by wisdom, based on rightness, restrained by propriety.

Involve reason, reflection, conviction.

To benefit not only self, but bring happiness to many.

Cultivating courage involves constant practice of moral principles and overcoming obstacles.

 

 

Trust. 

Trust is the foundation of all human relationships.

Family, friendship, and society cannot survive without trust. 

Societies should be communities of trust in one another’s goodness.

 

However, we must not believe others blindly.  Trust must also be based on rightness and wisdom.

Being trustworthy is necessary for other people to trust and have good interpersonal relationships.  People who can’t be trusted are rejected.

Nonetheless sometimes we must (e.g.) break promises, if the promise would lead to evil.  E.g. break promise to lend money when we learn the money is to be used for drugs or gambling.

Government must be trustworthy, and it must trust the people.  If the government acts out of consideration for the people, it will elicit trust.

For harmony in multiracial society tolerance and mutual trust is necessary.

 

 

Filiality.

This will be discussed under relationships.

 

 

Principles.

 

Propriety - the rules of conduct.

 

Human society is a sacred ritual.

 

The way through which you can express your humanity, and human-heartedness, effectively.

Guide for conduct of moral obligation, customs, courtesies. 

Governs society

            (More important in control than the law.  Common code of conduct -          harmonises and civilises society.)

Smooths relations between people.

Disciplines body and mind to act fittingly.

Teaches the forms of the right.

Enables and controls emotional expression.

Controls the other virtues by giving proportion

            Respectfulness without propriety equals tediousness

            Caution without propriety equals timidity

            Courage without propriety equals rashness

            Forthrightness without propriety equals rudeness

Forms may vary with time place and culture.  Must be based on rightness, must be reasonable, must be relevant to the time. 

A sense of orderliness.

 

Practice is the core of moral training.  Must be sincere, not empty form.

 

Reciprocity.

 

“Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.” 

 

Regard others’ interests as important.  We can understand the interests of others by considering our own.  We should develop sympathy for other people in their situations.

 

Helping others to develop themselves is an integral part of developing oneself.

Our own failures may be the cause of the failures of others.  We are responsible for helping other people.

When people adopt the right moral attitudes to each other they naturally tend to return each other’s goodwill.

 

Loyalty

Doing one’s utmost.

Commitment to responsibilities to ourselves and to others,

Dedication to self cultivation,

Recognition of our own shortcomings.

Loyalty with Rightness is sincerity and conviction in moral decisions and acts.

Loyalty with Compassion/Reciprocity leads us to do for others what we ourselves would like.

Not blind obedience!  Loyalty requires correcting people when they go wrong.

 

The Mean

Action should always be just right and not excessive or deficient.

Active pursuit of the right based on a balanced viewpoint.

The ability to make the most of conditions in the given situation and come up with the best solution at a particular time.

Requires

(1) unprejudiced and open-minded

(2) able to understand all aspects of the situation and flexible in handling it

(3) always true to moral principles  in our actions

 

Rectification of names

(First meaning)

Assign rights and duties according to roles in society. 

A person in a particular role (“name”) has a set of rights and duties which correspond to that role. 

Each person should perform his/her duties properly.

Society will function properly, and all will be ensured of their rights.

 

(Second meaning)

Make language fit reality.

If language is corrupt and deceptive, people will be misled, and society will be corrupted.

 

(Third meaning)

The broader principle is that there cannot be moral order without intellectual order.

 

Relationships

 

Parent - Child

 

Confucian moral cultivation begins in the family.  It is supposed to extend to community and society.

 

Parents have a duty to love and care for their children, so children have a duty to repay this love and care through filial piety.

 

(*Love does not seem to be the sort of thing that one can do through duty!  If parents do not arouse love and respect in their children, have they failed as parents?)

 

Can those who do not care for their parents be trusted to work for the well-being of others?

Those who show no love or respect for their parents will not show love and respect for others either. 

 

 

Sibling - sibling

Siblings are supposed to have natural love for each other.

Elder siblings are supposed to be kind and affectionate, while younger ones are supposed to be respectful.  (But why can they not be equals?)

 

 

Marriage

A basic relationship - the foundation of the family, of the parent-child relationship.

Love between a husband and wife based on mutual respect, promoted by cultivating patience, courtesy, tolerance towards each other.

Interdependence between husband and wife is a paradigm for interdependence between persons in all other human relations.

(Traditionally, Confucians have been enthusiastic supporters of the subordination of women.

http:/muse.jhu.edu/journals/hypatis/v017/17.1yuan.html)

 

 

Friendship

Friends have concern for each other.

Creating friendship requires effort and commitment, mutual care, sincerity, trust and trustworthiness.

 

Friends help to shape our characters

They are teachers, examples, and mirrors - they show us where we go wrong.

We get used to the company we keep, and are influenced by them, so we should choose worthwhile people as friends.

 

 

People - nation/rulers

Relationships between people and the nation or the rulers should be similar to the above relationships.

Only moral and competent rulers have a right to rule and should be supported by the people.

To rule morally a ruler must practise benevolence and fairness.

The people must seek knowledge and moral understanding in order to recognise benevolence and fairness.

 

 

Self and society.

 

The self, the family, and society are interdependent.

We can fulfil our human needs only with the help of society. 

Be friendly and helpful to one’s neighbours, fair and considerate towards subordinates, respectful towards superiors, and sincere and trusting to one’s equals.